EVROPSKÁ UNIE Evropské strukturální a investiční fondy Operační program Výzkum, vývoj a vzdělávání MINISTERSTVO ŠKOLSTVÍ, MLADE2E A TĚLOVÝCHOVY Název projektu Rozvoj vzdělávání na Slezské univerzitě v Opavě Registrační číslo projektu CZ.02.2.69/0.0./0.0/16_015/0002400 Odborná terminologie 1 Distanční studijní text Daniel Jedlička Opava 2019 SLEZSKA UNIVERZITA FILOZOFICKO-PŘÍ RODOVÉDECKÄ FAKULTA V OPAVĚ Obor: 0231 Osvojování si jazyka Klíčová slova: term, terminology, terminology management, lexicography, termino-graphy, terminology software, dictionary, termbase, term extraction Anotace: Kurz Odborná terminologie 1 seznamuje s charakteristickými rysy an- glického odborného jazyka, s konkrétním zaměřením na odborné termíny. Vysvětluje základní pojmy, stručně nastiňuje jazykovedné pozadí anglické terminologie a představuje užitečné slovníky a databáze oborových terminologií. Pozornost je věnována též terminologii v překladatelské praxi, zejména problematice správy terminologie s využitím současných technologií pro podporu překladu (Computer-Aided Translation). Autor: Mgr. Daniel Jedlička, M.A. Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 Obsah ÚVODEM............................................................................................................................5 RYCHLÝ NÁHLED STUDIJNÍ OPORY...........................................................................6 1 MAIN CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS..................................................................7 1.1 Terminology..........................................................................................................8 1.1.1 Terminology and lexicology..........................................................................8 1.1.2 Terminography and lexicography..................................................................8 1.2 Notions of terminology.........................................................................................9 1.2.1 Concept..........................................................................................................9 1.2.2 Definition.......................................................................................................9 1.2.3 Term...............................................................................................................9 1.3 Where do we find and use terms?.......................................................................10 1.4 Teiminology dynamics........................................................................................10 1.4.1 Terminologization........................................................................................11 1.4.2 Determinologization....................................................................................11 1.4.3 Re-terminologization...................................................................................12 2 THE LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF TERMINOLOGY..............................................14 2.1 Professional English and its properties...............................................................15 2.2 Terms and morphology.......................................................................................16 2.2.1 What does a term look like?.........................................................................16 2.2.2 Terms and their morphological components................................................17 2.3 Terms and word formation..................................................................................20 2.3.1 Derivation....................................................................................................21 2.3.2 Compounding...............................................................................................21 2.3.3 Blending.......................................................................................................22 2.3.4 Clipping........................................................................................................22 2.3.5 Conversion...................................................................................................23 2.3.6 Backformation..............................................................................................23 2.3.7 Coinage........................................................................................................24 2.3.8 Borrowing....................................................................................................24 2.3.9 Acronymy....................................................................................................25 2.3.10 Combined processes.....................................................................................26 3 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 2.4 Lexical relations in terminology.........................................................................27 2.4.1 Synonymy between terms............................................................................28 2.4.2 Terminological homonymy and polysemy..................................................28 3 TERMINOLOGY RESOURCES..............................................................................32 3.1 Specialized dictionaries.......................................................................................33 3.1.1 Print dictionaries..........................................................................................34 3.1.2 Electronic dictionaries.................................................................................35 3.2 Terminology databases........................................................................................36 3.2.1 TechTerms...................................................................................................36 3.2.2 Microsoft Language Portal..........................................................................37 3.2.3 MediLexicon................................................................................................37 3.2.4 IATE (InterActive Terminology for Europe)..............................................37 3.2.5 ECHA-term..................................................................................................37 3.2.6 Abbreviations.com.................................. .....................................................37 4 TERMINOLOGY MANAGEMENT........................................................................39 4.1 What is terminology management?.....................................................................40 4.2 Terms and translation software...........................................................................40 4.2.1 Termbase......................................................................................................41 4.2.2 The TBX file format....................................................................................42 4.3 Terminology management tools..........................................................................43 4.3.1 SDLMultiTerm...........................................................................................43 4.3.2 TermStar......................................................................................................44 4.3.3 Online solutions...........................................................................................45 4.4 Term extraction...................................................................................................45 4.4.1 Term extraction tools...................................................................................47 LITERATURA..................................................................................................................49 ODKAZ NA ONLINE LMS KURZ..................................................................................50 SHRNUTÍ STUDIJNÍ OPORY.........................................................................................51 PŘEHLED DOSTUPNÝCH IKON...................................................................................52 4 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 ÚVODEM Tato studijní opora je určena studentům bakalářského programu Angličtina pro odbornou praxi jako podpůrný materiál ke kurzu Odborná terminologie 1. Studijní opora obsahuje: • teoretický základ probíraného tématu s konkrétními příklady, • definice probíraných pojmů, • kontrolní otázky a samostatné úkoly, • seznam použité literatury, • odkaz na online LMS kurz. Student nastuduje dané téma, zodpoví kontrolní otázky a vypracuje případné samostatné úkoly. 5 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 RÝCHLY NÁHLED STUDIJNÍ OPORY Kurz je koncipován tak, aby účastníky seznámil s charakteristickými rysy anglického odborného jazyka, s konkrétním zaměřením na odborné termíny - tj. výrazy používané v rámci různých oborových názvosloví a profesní mluvy. Stručně budou vysvětleny základní pojmy a koncepty a bude nastíněno jazykovedné pozadí anglické terminologie (zejména její morfologická charakteristika a různé slovotvorné procesy, jimiž termíny vznikají nebo do angličtiny pronikají). Studenti se dále seznámí s užitečnými slovníky a databázemi různých oborových terminologií (tištěnými i elektronickými) v jejich aktuálních verzích. V neposlední řadě bude pozornost věnována terminologii v překladatelské praxi, zejména problematice správy terminologie s využitím současných technologií pro podporu překladu (Computer-Aided Translation). 6 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 1 MAIN CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS QUICK OVERVIEW The first chapter explains the main concepts and notions related to terms and terminology, provides the necessary definitions, and places terminology within the wider context of linguistic study. It also deals with the general processes that underlie terminology development and contribute to what we refer to as 'terminology dynamics'. AIMS In this chapter you will learn: • about the relation between terminology and lexicology; • about the fundamental notions of terminology; • about the typical contexts in which we come across terms; • about the processes that contribute to terminology dynamics. KEYWORDS term, terminology, terminography, lexicology, lexicography, concept, definition, ter-minologization, determinologization, re-terminologization REQUIRED TIME 90 minutes Main concepts and definitions 1.1 Terminology It may not be immediately obvious but the word terminology refers to two different concepts, and as such it carries two different meanings: • According to the definition provided by the Oxford Dictionary, terminology is "the body of terms used with a particular technical application in a subject of study, profession, etc." To put it in another way, the word 'terminology' collectively refers to a class of words or phrases (called terms) used in particular, usually professional contexts to convey specific meanings. We often add an adjective to specify the context of use, and thus we speak of 'legal terminology', 'medical terminology', 'economic terminology', 'administrative terminology', etc. • 'Terminology' is also the name of the field of study or discipline that systematically deals with terms, their properties and use. It has close ties to other areas of applied linguistics. 1.1.1 Terminology and lexicology From the perspective of linguistics, terminology as a discipline is a part of lexicology. Both lexicology and terminology deal with the study of words. However, the difference is that lexicology studies the entire inventory of words in a language, whereas terminology is only interested in terms, i.e. lexical units connected with a specialized field or professional activity. A scholar whose work deals with the lexical component of language is called a lexicologist. A person who is involved in the study of terms is a terminologist. 1.1.2 Terminography and lexicography There is an analogous relation between terminography and lexicography. The latter refers to the practice of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries or other lexical resources (these activities are performed by or under the supervision of lexicographers), whereas terminography - also 'applied terminology' or 'terminological lexicography' - is a subfield that deals with the production (i.e. collection, processing and presentation) of terminology resources; a person involved in doing this is a terminographer. A very specific area of lexicography is metalexicography, which is concerned with the description and/or scholarly criticism of existing dictionaries and dictionary-making practices. The modern-day practice of both lexicography and terminography is highly reliant on the use of computer technology. Also, in line with the global rise in the use of the Inter- 8 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 net, more and more products of lexicography and terminography take the form of digital resources and/or online services. 1.2 Notions of terminology There are three key notions associated with terminology: concept, definition and term (refer to the diagram below to see how they are related). I I J I CONCEPT li * DEFINITION i—,—r-i——i i PP * *• - - - TERM Fig. 1 - The key notions of terminology. 1.2.1 Concept Concepts are units of thought through which we organise our knowledge. They are abstract representations of the entities that make up the world around us. Concepts play an important role in all aspects of cognition. We tend to understand concepts in relation to other concepts, rather than in isolation; in fact, human thought, knowledge and belief are based on a structured system of concepts. 1.2.2 Definition Existing concepts need to be defined. As the diagram above shows (see Fig. 1), the relation between a concept and a term is indirect; it is the definition that provides the link between them. A terminological definition must be as detailed as is necessary in order to differentiate a concept (and its associated term) from other concepts and terms, and therefore to avoid ambiguity. 1.2.3 Term Terms are the linguistic designations assigned to concepts. Because terminology deals with specialised domains of knowledge, terms refer to the entities, properties, activities or relations that exist in a particular domain or field. 9 Main concepts and definitions Behind each term there should be a clearly defined, unambiguous concept, and the choice of the term ought to reflect this concept effectively. Also, as is the case with any other word, the form of the term should be in line with the lexical and morphological rules of the particular language - otherwise it may sound 'strange' or unnatural, and might be difficult to adopt. 1.3 Where do we find and use terms? Words, the focus of lexicology, can typically be found in dictionaries, lexical databases, language corpora, wordlists and wordnets, where they are presented in a way that facilitates their practical use. An obvious area of use is translation but there are others: literature and creative writing (dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms), songwriting (rhyming dictionaries), study of language (corpora), spell-checking (wordlists), natural language processing (wordnets), etc. On the other hand, terms are chiefly used in translation practice (in fact, the translation business is an important driving force behind many developments in terminography) and, of course, in field-specific communication, both spoken and written. Terms are collected and presented in specialized dictionaries or dedicated terminology databases. Apart from these resources we can come across terms in: • field-specific texts (legal terms in a contract, technical terms in a manual, etc.); • professional jargon (also referred to as "shop talk"); • in-house terminology banks; • termbases (also called "glossaries") used by translation software. Sometimes terms are not found outside of a particular, very narrow context. Certain companies or communities cherish and develop their own terms that will probably be unintelligible to most people - in some cases almost working as a "secret language" of sorts. The use of such terms has a strong social motivation in that they become part of the identity of the respective company or community. For example, in multi-level marketing (a form of direct selling in which existing distributors are encouraged to find new distributors, and are paid a percentage of their recruits' sales) they use terms like sponsor, downline, upline, leg or volume, with very particular meanings. Such terms not only refer to company-specific concepts and serve in-house communication: they also represent an important part of the corporate culture. 1.4 Terminology dynamics The world around us keeps changing and evolving. As it is the property of language to reflect reality, we tend to look for a 'name' or a 'label' for each new thing that is in- 10 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 vented or otherwise comes into existence. Some specific fields, branches or professions develop very dynamically, and new terms need to be introduced continually to reflect the new concepts. At the same time, terms are dropped from use as once-specialized concepts become commonplace and lose their "technicality sense". The overall dynamics of terminology is influenced by three lexical processes: termi-nologization, determinologization, and re-terminologization. 1.4.1 terminologization Terminologization is the process of creating specialist terms by taking general-meaning words already in existence {cloud: "a grey or white mass made of tiny drops of water that floats in the sky") and giving them specialized meanings {cloud: "a network of computer servers on which data and software can be stored"). One particular field in which terminologization takes place very frequently is information technology (IT). Terminologization is rarely a completely random process. Often there is a traceable relation between the original (general) word and the newly created term. The relation tends to be based on: • a similarity in shape or form: mouse, crane, window • an analogy of function: desktop, folder, recycle bin, dialog TASK Using a dictionary, compare the general vs. specific meaning of the following words: • folder, driver, widget (IT) • bill, hearing, motion (law) • casting, lock, spring (tech.) 1.4.2 Determinologization The opposite process is called determinologization: a term leaves the boundaries of expert language, the "special meaning" is drained out of it, and the term is incorporated into general language as a widely known word. Good examples are certain medical terms, which people commonly use without the complex clinical meanings ascribed to them by medical professionals. The example sentence provided by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, "There was a feeling of gloom and depression in the office when the news of the job cuts was announced," 11 Main concepts and definitions clearly demonstrates that the word depression is now used in a much more general sense. Similarly, many people complain of insomnia without being officially diagnosed with this condition: they merely want to say they find it hard to sleep. As information technology becomes more and more available and widespread, original technical terms such as laptop, tablet or monitor have, too, been deprived of their specialist meanings and have become common words that everybody understands. 1.4.3 Re-terminologization Re-terminologization is the transition of a term from one specific area of use to another. In other words, the respective lexical unit remains a term but is now used in a different context with a different meaning. One notorious example is the term virus ("an infective agent, too small to be seen without a microscope"), which originally comes from biology and is now also used as a term in IT ("a computer program designed to cause faults or destroy data"). DEFINITIONS Lexicology - A field of linguistics that studies words. Lexicography - The practice of producing dictionaries or other lexical resources (print or electronic). Term - A lexical unit (a single word, a compound, or a multi-word expression) connected with a specialized field or professional activity and carrying a specific meaning. Terminology -LA class of words or phrases (terms) used in particular, usually professional contexts to convey specific meanings. 2. A branch of applied linguistics that systematically studies terms, their properties and use. Terminography - The practice of producing terminological resources (print or electronic) such as specialized dictionaries or terminology databases. Terminologization - The process of creating specialist terms by taking general-meaning words already in existence and giving them specialized meanings. Determinologization - The process in which a lexical unit loses its terminological properties and becomes a commonly used word. Re-terminologization - The transition of a term from one specific area of use to another. 12 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 COMPREHENSION CHECK 1. What is the relation between lexicology and terminology? 2. Explain the fundamental notions associated with terminology: concept, definition and term. 3. Explain how the processes of terminologization, determinologization and re-terminologization influence the dynamics of terminology. Give specific examples. SUMMARY The introductory chapter dealt with the main concepts and notions related to terms and terminology. We provided the necessary definitions, placed terminology within the wider context of linguistic study, and explained its relation to lexicology. We also described the general processes that underlie terminology development and influence its dynamics. 13 The linguistic aspects of terminology 2 THE LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF TERMINOLOGY QUICK OVERVIEW This relatively extensive chapter deals with the linguistic properties of terms. We will present the key characteristics of "professional English" - a specific expert language or code used by English speakers in various professional contexts. We will also describe terms from the viewpoint of their morphological properties, focusing on various formal components and the meanings they contribute to the term they are part of. Further in the chapter we will discuss the main word-formation processes through which terms are created or otherwise enter the English language. Last but not least, we will cover various lexical relations that exist between terms. AIMS _ In this chapter you will learn: • about the characteristic features of professional English; • about the morphological properties and typical components of terms; • how various word-formation processes contribute to the growth of English terminology; • about lexical relations between terms. KEYWORDS professional English, morphology, word formation, lexical relations, synonymy, ho-monymy, polysemy REQUIRED TIME _ 240 minutes 14 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 2.1 Professional English and its properties In this study material we use "professional English" as an umbrella term referring to the specific expert language used by English speakers in various professional contexts. Therefore, this general term covers and subsumes what textbooks and dictionaries call "business English", "technical English", "medical English", "academic English", "English for IT", etc. As terminology plays an important role in professional or expert language and communication, we consider it quite logical to start this chapter with a brief overview of the linguistic properties of professional English. Its main characteristic features are the following: • The actual choice of linguistic devices is strongly influenced by the general need for an exact, concise and mainly impersonal way of expression. • The requirement to be highly exact leads to relatively long sentences. It is estimated that sentences in expert texts and communication tend to be 70% longer compared to general English. • The sentence structure is often complex and varied in form. • The predominantly impersonal nature of professional English underlies the fact that it has adopted grammatical means which suit this particular way of expression. Impersonal structures include, above all, nominal forms of verbs (the infinitive, the gerund, the present and past participles) and the passive. • Words and phrases tend to have literal meanings. There is little room for figurative language. • Terms and term-like expressions constitute a significant part of professional vocabulary. They carry a high degree of information. • Relations between terms and other semantic parts of the sentence are described by functional expressions such as prepositions and conjunctions (for example: upon, after, besides, moreover, furthermore, aside from, in addition to, together with, in conformity with, as a result, providing) or adverbs {again, however, nevertheless, thus, therefore, alternatively, etc.). • Professional English also employs its own 'phraseology' in the form of various set phrases {on no account, give account of, take into account, come into existence, come to a conclusion, come to light, etc.). • Frequent are phrases expressing the opinion or attitude of the author of the text towards the argument(s) he/she is making {beyond any doubt, of course, to be sure, there is every indication that, we strongly believe that, it is safe to assume that, etc.). 15 The linguistic aspects of terminology • Also very common are words and phrases expressing the degree of probability (possibly, probably, presumably, in all probability, perhaps, apparently, unlikely, it is assumed that, it is widely believed that, etc.). • There is a relative lack of personal pronouns, and especially of the first-person singular "I". 2.2 Terms and morphology In this section we will discuss terms from the viewpoint of morphology. We will have a look at the formal properties of terms, and see how morphemes - minimal units that carry meaning in language - work and contribute to the construction of terminological meaning. Especially for translators, being able to see the individual components that make up terms can facilitate the interpretation and understanding of the highly specific meanings found in professional English texts. 2.2.1 What does a term look like? In the English language, a term typically takes the form of: • a noun, which is either o a simple noun: contract (law), bronchitis (med.) o a compound: backbencher (polit.), boric acid (chem.) o a derivation: antivirus (IT), revocation (law) o a blend: Unicode, codec (both IT) • a nominal phrase: Doppler shift (phys.), word processor (IT), safety valve (tech.) • an adjectival phrase: Official Journal (EU admin.), relative clause (ling.), protective layer (tech.) • a complex phrase: selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (med.) • a verb: to log in (IT), to unfriend (social media), to countersign (law, admin.) • an acronym: AIDS (med.), BOM (tech.) • an initialism: EU (polit.), MRI (med.) 16 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 2.2.2 Terms and their morphological components Many terms are - or contain - derived words, i.e. words that have been formed using a root or a stem (a "base word" consisting of at least one lexical morpheme) in combination with an affix (a derivational morpheme). The most common affix types in English are prefixes (added before the base word) and suffixes (added after the base word). The core meaning of the term is usually carried by its lexical morpheme(s), while derivational morphemes (i.e. prefixes and suffixes) provide additional semantic features to further specify or modify the meaning. Take the following adjective as an example: bi pol a Here, the lexical morpheme pol (representing the root of the word) indicates that the word incorporates "a pole" as its core semantic notion. The derivational morpheme -ar (the suffix) adds the meaning "having or related to", and turns the word into an adjective. Finally, the derivational morpheme bi- (the prefix) adds the meaning "two", thus arriving at the final meaning of the word: "having or related to two poles". Prefixes The table below lists a few common prefixes that often appear as morphological components in English terms: Prefix Meaning Example term(s) a(n)- "without", "non-" anorganic, amorphous anti- "against" antifreeze, anticlockwise astro- "star", "space" astronaut, astronomy, astronavigation bi- "two", "twice" bipolar, bilateral cent(i)- "hundred" centipede, centigrade counter-contra- "back", "against" counterbalance, counteraction contraception, contraflow de- "to lower", "to deteriorate" decomposition, degradation deca- "ten" decathlon, decalitre demi-hemi-semi- "half demigod, demi-pension hemisphere, hemistich semicircular, semiconductor dia- "through", "between", "across" diagonal, diameter endo- "inside" endocrinology, endogenous equi- "the same" equivalence, equidistant exo- "outside" exogamy, exogenous 17 The linguistic aspects of terminology geo- "earth" geography, geodesic gyro- / gyra- "rotation", "circle" gyrocompass, gyration hecto- "hundred" hectolitre, hectogram hetero- "different" heterogeneous, heteromorphic hyper- "over", "too many" hypercharge, hypersensitive hypo- "less", "under" hypodermic, hypoplasia inter- "between", "mutually" interplanetary, Internet iso-homo- "the same", "identical" isochromatic, isogonal homogeneous, homophone macro- "big" macroeconomic, macro structure mal- "bad" malfunction, malignant mono- "one", "only" monochromatic, monorail neo- "new" neologism, neonatal octa- / octo- "eight" octagon, octosyllabic ornni- "all", "everywhere" omnipresence, omnidirectional over- "too" overload, oversaturation peri- "around" perimeter, peripheral poly- "many" polygon, polycarbonate proto- "first" protozoa, prototype re- "again" reaction, recycle super- "above" supersonic, superstructure tele- "distance" telemetry, telescope thermo- "temperature" thermometer, thermoplastic trans- "across" transverse, transfer uni- "one" unicycle, unicameral vice- "in place of vice-president, vice-governor Suffixes The table below lists a few common suffixes that often appear as morphological components in English terms: Suffix Meaning / function Example term(s) -able / -ible possibility, feasibility machinable, collapsible -age process, activity montage, assemblage 18 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 -al forms nouns and adjectives removal, mechanical -ance / -ancy -ence / -ency form nouns that express property or state conductance, constancy presence, valency -ant forms nouns and adjectives lubricant, resistant -ary / -ery -ory place connected with a particular job or activity library, infirmary, winery, refinery observatory, factory -ation forms nouns that express activity or state refrigeration, formation -ce / -cy forms nouns valence, sequence accuracy, supremacy -(c)ule "small" minuscule, molecule, capsule -ectomy "chirurgical removal" colectomy, vasectomy -er / -or -ian, -ist -ier / -yer form names of professions welder, director librarian, machinist cashier, lawyer -esce forms verbs that express change of state incandesce, effervesce -gram "record" oscillogram, diagram -graph "recording or diagnostic device" barograph, cardiograph -ic / -ical -ial form adjectives expressing properties magnetic, surgical spatial, commercial -icle adds the meaning "small" to nouns particle, cubicle -ics -logy form names of sciences physics, economics biology, metrology -ing forms nouns tubing, bolting, lining -ity / -ility -ivity form nouns expressing properties reactivity, capability conductivity -less "without" wireless, contactless -let adds the meaning "small" to nouns droplet, applet -meter "measuring device" thermometer, altimeter -oid "similar or resembling" hyperboloid, planetoid -proof "resistant" waterproof, laserproof -scope "optical indicator" oscilloscope, spectroscope -sion forms names expressing property or activity torsion, conversion -y forms nouns and adjectives symmetry, rusty 19 The linguistic aspects of terminology TASK Using the information presented in section 2.2.2, analyse the morphological structure of the following five terms. Identify prefixes and suffixes, explain their meaning and/or function, and translate the term into Czech. (The particular field in which the term is used is given in brackets.) contractor (business) homogamy (botany) geologist (science) monosyllabic (linguistics) managerial (business) DEFINITIONS Lexical morpheme - An abstract morphological component that carries the actual semantic content (the conceptual meaning) of the word. Typically, a lexical morpheme forms the root of the word. Derivational morpheme - An abstract morphological component that specifies or modifies the meaning and/or function of the word. Typically, derivational morphemes manifest themselves in the form of affixes. Affix - A morphological component added to a base word to modify its meaning or function. The process of adding affixes is called derivation. Prefix - A type of affix that is added before the base word. Suffix - A type of affix that is added after the base word. 2.3 Terms and word formation There are many different ways in which words can enter a language. The constant evolution of word stock (i.e. the introduction of new words, and the re-use of old words with new meanings) is a sign of vitality and creativity as languages are shaped by the changing world and by the needs of their users. 20 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 We have already mentioned in the previous text that we need to create new terms in order to be able to name the new inventions people come up with. Therefore, in this section we will discuss terms from the viewpoint of word formation. Word formation is a collective term given to the various processes by which new words are created. Many languages employ similar kinds of word-formation processes, but they differ in the degree to which these processes are typical of the particular language. For example, inflected languages such as Czech or Polish tend to form most new words through derivation (i.e. adding prefixes and suffixes to word stems), whereas non-inflected languages (Japanese, Turkish etc.) prefer compounding, conversion or other processes. We will now have a look at the individual word-formation processes that are typical of the English language, with a specific focus on the formation of terms: 2.3.1 Derivation We have seen in chapter 2.2 above that the morphological structure of English lends itself quite well to the use of derivation - the adding of prefixes and suffixes - in the formation of terms. In fact, derivation is (together with compounding) the most common word formation process in English. Numerous examples of derived terms have been presented in section 2.2.2. 2.3.2 Compounding Compounding is the joining of two or more separate lexical units (base words) to produce a new word form. This word-formation process is very common in English. As far as the form is concerned, we traditionally distinguish three types of compound in English: • Closed compounds are expressions in which the individual components are written together, with no space between them. Closed compounds are typically made up of two words (fingerprint, laserdisc, textbook, archway, motherboard, joystick, hatchback, trolleybus) but certain term-like adverbs and prepositions used in formal situations - for example, in legal or administrative texts - consist of three base words {hereinafter, heretofore, notwithstanding). • Hyphenated compounds use a hyphen as a dividing character between two or more base words. Examples of terms that are hyphenated compounds include: singer-songwriter, plug-in, right-of-centre, left-handedness, four-by-four, editor-in-chief, etc. 21 The linguistic aspects of terminology • Open compounds are by far the most common. In these expressions all the base words are written separately: expansion card, boarding pass, deputy chairman, nuclear power plant, coefficient of friction, right of way, emergency core cooling system, etc. Many complex terms that are open compounds actually consist of a combination of the three types above. Examples include: decision-making process, computer-aided translation, do-it-yourself kit, self-powered motherboard, etc. 2.3.3 Blending This word-formation process involves combining two lexical forms by taking a part of one word (usually the beginning) and joining it to a part of another word. Due to this, the meaning of blends is less obvious at first sight compared to compounds. Well-known blend examples include smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch), motel (motor + hotel) and cyborg (cybernetic + organism). One terminology area in which blends are common is information technology: Original words Resulting term binary + digi? bit modulator + demodulator modem coder + decoder codec emotion + icon emoticon Internet + etiquette netiquette spamming + robot spambot web + log blog video + blog vlog iv/reless +fidelity Wi-Fi 2.3.4 Clipping Clipping is a process in which a word consisting of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form. Usually, it is relatively long words - that is, words consisting of at least two or three syllables - that are clipped. This is not done out of laziness: users generally tend to express themselves as economically as possible, and because languages employ a certain degree of redundancy, users can omit parts of long compounds or multi-word terms without diminishing their meanings. As clipped words in general tend to indicate informal use of language (although many such words are now perceived as neutral), clippings are often found in professional slang rather than as regular terms. 22 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 Examples of clippings used in professional English: ad advertisement lab laboratory fridge refrigerator condo condominium app software application rep representative specs specifications vet veterinary surgeon memo memorandum temp temporary employee gas gasoline maths mathematics 2.3.5 Conversion Conversion is a type of word formation that does not involve any morphological means. The process of conversion is based on the change in the function of a word, rather than in the form. Typically, lexical units created through conversion have changed their part of speech while retaining the same (or minimally changed) word form. In other words, during conversion verbs turn into nouns or adjectives, nouns turn into verbs, and so on. Examples of English terms formed via conversion: Part-of-speech change Original word Resulting term a bottle to bottle a product a chair to chair a meeting noun to verb a lecture to lecture at a university a position to position a product in the market to print out a printout verb to noun to take over a takeover to spy a spy verb to adjective to stand up stand-up comedy to see through a see-through fabric 2.3.6 Backformation This word-formation process, too, involves a change in the part of speech but compared to conversion (see above), a reduction of the word form takes place (typically, a suffix is removed from the original word). Backformation usually produces verbs that are formed from nouns. Examples of English terms that are the result of backformation: 23 The linguistic aspects of terminology Original word Resulting term television to televise euthanasia to euthanise / euthanize liaison to liaise bulldozer to bulldoze electrocution to electrocute donation to donate 2.3.7 Coinage Just like new things are constantly invented, so are new words. The process of inventing a completely new word is referred to as coinage, and the same term is applied to the result of that process. Coinages often enter the language as trade names for commercial products, and over time they become general words referring to any version or variation of the original product. (They also usually drop the initial capital letter in the process.) Coinages tend to be nouns but we also have examples of newly coined verbs. Examples of coinages that are used as terms: aspirin, nylon, vaseline, kleenex, teflon, xerox, sellotape, quark; to google, to photoshop. Coinages based on proper names (i.e. names of people or places) are called eponyms. Example English terms that are eponyms include: hoover, fahrenheit, diesel, Marxist, platonic, Petri dish, Alzheimer's Disease, etc. 2.3.8 Borrowing In order to extend the word stock of a language we can turn to other languages and simply incorporate words already existing there. This practice is referred to as "borrowing"; a word taken over from another language is called a loanword or a borrowing. Today, English is a very influential language, so many modern terms that come from English-speaking countries end up as loanwords in other languages. Sometimes they even become preferred over existing "native" terms; for example, the suggested Czech term magnetoskop ("a video player or recorder") never really caught on in language practice and was soon replaced by a borrowing from English, video. On the other hand, English has, too, been quite keen on lexical borrowings. It is estimated that nearly 30% of the entire English word stock is of French origin, and roughly the same proportion of vocabulary comes from Latin. As far as terminology is concerned, the major sources of term borrowings are Latin, French and Greek but other languages have contributed, too. The table below gives some examples: 24 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 Language of origin Borrowed terms Arabic alcohol, atlas, fakir, fatwa Czech robot, howitzer (from houfnice via the German Haubitze) Dutch buoy, commodore, iceberg, narwhal, trigger French automobile, calorie, district, fabric, juxtaposition, oxygen German flugelhorn, glockenspiel, lithography, snorkel, umlaut, Zeitgeist Greek aorta, colophon, diabetes, chaos, pneumonia, stigma, trauma Italian a cappella, cantata, gabion, loggia, motto, novella, opera, zebra Japanese anime, emoji, futon, ikebana, karate, tofu, tsunami Latin accumulation, condominium, denture, fungus, mutation, phonetic Sanskrit avatar, guru, nirvana, yoga Spanish armadillo, Chicano, hurricane, mulatto, oregano, tobacco TASK Using the Internet, identify the languages from which the following five terms have been borrowed: chutney _ deck _ angst _ karaoke _ yoghurt _ 2.3.9 acronymy The last word-formation process we will cover is acronymy - the creation of new words formed from the initial letters of other words. Acronymy is a type of abbreviation. Linguists typically distinguish two kinds of words that are the result of this process: acronyms (which are pronounced as single words: UNESCO [juneskau]) and initialisms (pronounced as individual letters: DVD [di: vi: di:]). However, there is apparently some overlap between the two categories, as there are words that people pronounce in both ways: UFO ([ju:fau] or [ju: ef au]), VAr([vi: ei ti:] or [va;t]), etc. 25 The linguistic aspects of terminology In terminology, acronyms and initialisms are very common because many specialist terms are long open compounds (see 2.3.2 above). Acronymy provides a practical way to facilitate their use in both written and spoken communication. Certain terms formed through acronymy have become so common that we no longer feel their acronymic origin: laser (fight amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), etc. Examples of common English terms that are acronyms or initialisms are given in the table below: Acronyms NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation radar radio detection and ranging OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AWOL absent without official leave GIF graphics interchange format PIN personal identification number Initialisms FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation CIA Central Intelligence Agency MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HTML hyper-text markup language BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CNN Cable News Network OEM original equipment manufacturer RSI Repetitive Strain Injury 2.3.10 Combined processes More than one process can often be involved in the formation of a new word. From a synchronic viewpoint we can identify a combination of word-formation processes in terms like the following: robotic borrowing + derivation HIV-positive acronymy + compounding cellphone clipping + compounding 26 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 DEFINITIONS Acronymy - A process in which a new word is created from the initial letters of a multiword form. The resulting new word is either an acronym (pronounced as a single word) or an initialism (pronounced as a sequence of individual letters). Backformation - A process that involves a change in the part of speech of a word while, at the same time, reducing the word form (typically, removing a suffix). Blending - A process in which two lexical forms are combined, by taking a part of one word (usually the beginning) and joining it to a part of another word. The resulting new word is called a blend. Borrowing - The incorporation of a word from another language. Such a word is then called a loanword or a borrowing. Clipping - A process that involves the shortening of a longer word. The resulting new word is called a clipping. Coinage - The invention of totally new words. The resulting word is called a coinage or a coined word. Compounding - A process that involves the joining of two or more separate lexical units (base words). The resulting new word is called a compound. Conversion - A process based on changing the function of a word. Typically, words created through conversion have changed their part of speech while retaining the same (or minimally changed) word form. Derivation - A process in which new words are created by way of adding affixes. The resulting new word is called a derivation or a derived word. 2.4 Lexical relations in terminology Words do not exist as mere "containers of meaning": they can also have relationships with each other. The meaning of a word can be described not only in terms of its component semantic features but also in terms of its relationship to other words. Early on in this study material (see chapter 1.2) we mentioned that terms should be unambiguous and that, ideally, one term should refer to one clearly defined concept. However, this requirement is difficult to meet in actual language practice. Just like other words, terms become involved in various lexical relations such as synonymy, homonymy 27 The linguistic aspects of terminology and polysemy. This complicates their use to a certain degree, but such is the nature and reality of language. 2.4.1 Synonymy between terms In various fields of terminology we come across different words and expressions with apparently the same or a very similar meaning. These work as synonymous terms (or terminological synonyms), thus effectively breaching the requirement that one concept should be referred to by one (and only one) term. Synonymy - the existence of different word forms sharing the same underlying concept - occurs in terminologies for various reasons: • Geographical: the same entity is called differently in various countries where the same language is spoken; for instance, lift and bonnet in British English, which have their corresponding American English counterparts, elevator and hood. • Social: the same concept has acquired a new name due to changes in the society. For example, the terms air hostess, chairman and policewoman now co-exist with their respective gender-neutral synonyms flight attendant, chairperson and police officer. • Ideological: the same concept has acquired two (or more) different names due to political or ideological reasons. One famous example is the word cosmonaut (used in the former Eastern Bloc), which is in reality no different from an astronaut (a term used in the Western world). The reason for the existence of two different terms is purely political here. The recent addition of taikonaut ("an astronaut in the Chinese space programme") has a similar motivation. • Preferential: the same concept is called differently among different professional user groups because they prefer or have devised their own term. Examples include IT-related terms used across different computer platforms and operating systems: dialog box vs. message window, control vs. widget ("a user interface element"), checkbox vs. tickbox, context menu vs. pop-up menu, etc. • Marketing: the same concept has acquired another name because there is a marketing and/or media "push" behind it. Indeed, new synonyms often originate from product names and trademarks. Examples: sticky tape vs. Sellotape, exercise bike vs. Exercycle, sticky note vs. Post-it, etc. 2.4.2 Terminological homonymy and polysemy Terms are standards set to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding in a specific profession or field of activity. However, practice has shown that quite often, one and the same 28 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 term can have different meanings, depending on the context. While in general language this is a positive sign (indicating that the language is alive and rich), terminological ho-monymy and polysemy - the existence of terms with multiple meanings - can lead to confusion. The distinction between polysemy and homonymy is often quite vague, but the generally accepted definition is that polysemous words carry meanings that are related in origin, whereas the individual meanings of homonyms are not related to each other. In dictionaries, polysemous words tend to be treated within a single entry while homonyms form separate dictionary entries. As an example we will take a look at the term "lock". As the table below shows, the term acquires different meanings in different fields of use (and has different corresponding translations in Czech). However, the meanings are mutually related - they all involve holding something in place and blocking it there. They share the same origin, so "lock" is a polysemous term (not a homonym): Field of use Definition Czech translation sport "A hold that prevents an opponent from moving (in wrestling or martial arts)." zámek water transport "A short section of a canal or river with gates at each end which can be opened or closed to change the water level, used for raising and lowering boats." zdymadlo, plavební komora car technology "The maximum extent to which the front wheels of a vehicle can be turned left or right." rejd Another example is the verb "to clear". As the definitions below indicate, the meanings assigned to the verb in various specialist contexts are not related to each other. Therefore, "to clear" is a homonymous term: Field of use Definition Czech translation international transport "To give or receive official permission to transport goods across the border." proclít, celně odbavit sport "To kick or hit a ball or a puck away from the area near your own goal." dostat míč/puk z obranného pásma business "To make net profit." vydělat, získat (čistý zisk) business "To sell cheaply to get rid of stock." levně rozprodat, zbavit se, dát do výprodeje 29 The linguistic aspects of terminology DEFINITIONS Synonymy - A semantic relation between two or more word forms that share the same or a very similar meaning. Synonymous terms (also terminological synonyms) - Terms that are different words but refer to the same concept. Polysemy - A semantic relation based on the fact that a single word form carries several meanings that are related in origin. Polysemous term - A term that introduces ambiguity in terminology because it has more meanings, related through polysemy. Homonymy - A semantic relation based on the fact that a single word form carries several meanings that are unrelated to each other. Homonymous term - A term that introduces ambiguity in terminology because it has more meanings, related through homonymy. COMPREHENSION CHECK 1. What is professional English, in what contexts is it used, and what are its typical linguistic properties? 2. Which morphological components take part in forming English terms? Give specific examples. 3. Which word-formation processes contribute to extending the repertoire of English terms? Give specific examples. 4. Explain the possible reasons for the existence of terminological synonymy. Give specific examples. 5. Explain the difference between homonymous and polysemous terms. Give specific examples. 30 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 SUMMARY This chapter dealt with the linguistic properties of terms. We presented the main characteristic features of professional English (that is, the expert language used by English speakers in various professional contexts). We also described terms from the viewpoint of their morphological properties, focusing on various formal components and the meanings they contribute to the term they are part of. We also mentioned the most common word-formation processes through which terms are created or otherwise enter the English language. Finally, we devoted our attention to various lexical relations (namely: synonymy, homonymy and polysemy), and explained how their existence affects the use of terminology- 31 Terminology resources 3 TERMINOLOGY RESOURCES QUICK OVERVIEW The third chapter leaves the realm of theory and looks at the practical side of things. We will give an overview of various terminology resources that a translator may find useful in his/her daily work. We will recommend a number of specialized dictionaries, both print and electronic, that cover terminology in various subject domains (economics and finance, law, politics, etc.). We will also mention a number of publicly available online terminology databases that can serve as resources complementary to dictionaries. AIMS In this chapter you will learn: • about the importance of terminological accuracy in translation; • about specialized dictionaries that contain terms relating to particular fields and professions; • about useful terminology databases. KEYWORDS translation, terminological accuracy, dictionary, terminology database REQUIRED TIME _ 180 minutes 32 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 When translating specialist texts, terminological accuracy is an important aspect of the quality of translation. The knowledge of terminology used in a particular field, and the ability to find, verify and correctly use terms to fit the needs of specialist communication, are important prerequisites that a professional translator has to meet. In reality, very few translators are trained experts in the field in which they specialize: for instance, a person translating chemistry-related texts is not required to have studied chemistry at university level. But they have to be able to effectively find the correct terms for the particular context. This is where various terminology resources enter the scene and become indispensable tools. We mentioned in section 1.3 above that for practical purposes, terms are often collected in specialized dictionaries and terminology databases. In this chapter we will have a look at some of these resources. 3.1 Specialized dictionaries These dictionaries contain the terminology related to a particular subject field or discipline, often trying to cover as much of the relevant terminology as possible. Specialized dictionaries tend to cover one subject field, although multi-field dictionaries do exist as well. Print dictionaries come in traditional book form, whereas electronic dictionaries take the form of software applications, e-books (in formats such as PDF or ePub) or online services. Electronic dictionaries allow faster searching, and they also tend to be more up-to-date: it is much easier (as well as cheaper) for publishers to update and extend them because the additional cost of printing and binding does not apply. Another possible classification is based on the language(s) used: • Monolingual dictionaries present terms through their definitions in a single language. They can be useful when the translator wants to actually understand the term he/she is translating, rather than just find the corresponding equivalent in a target language. • Translating dictionaries (bilingual or multi-lingual) contain terms and their corresponding translations in one or more target languages. Some dictionaries combine both approaches; typically, the dictionary is designed as a translating dictionary but definitions or explanations of terms are also provided for reference. The table below presents a non-exhaustive list of existing specialized translating dictionaries (both print and electronic) that cover Czech and English terminology used in various fields and professions: 33 Terminology resources 3.1.1 Print dictionaries Subject domain Title Author(s) Publisher and date Velký ekonomický slovník anglicko-český / česko-anglický various authors Fraus, 2007 Anglicko-český ekonomický slovník J. H. Adam Leda, 2003 economics and finance Anglicko-český + Česko-anglický odborný slovník z oblasti ekonomické, obchodní a finanční (two volumes) Milena Bočánková et al. Linde, 2008 (4th ed.) Anglicko-český ekonomický výkladový slovník Jiří Elman Sobotáles, 2004 Ekonomický slovník s odborným výkladem česky a anglicky Helena Fialová, Jan Fiala Aplus, 2009 Česko-anglický slovník pojišťovnictví various authors Grada, 2007 Anglicko-český právnický slovník Jana Oherová et al. Linde, 2010 law Anglicko-český právnický slovník Marta Chromá Leda, 2010 (3rd ed.) Česko-anglický právnický slovník s vysvětlivkami Marta Chromá Leda, 2010 (3rd ed.) politics and Anglicko-český a česko-anglický slovník Evropské unie Milena Bočánková, Miroslav Kalina Ekopress, 2005 administration Velký slovník zkratek Evropské unie Jiří Elman East West Publ., 2000 Anglicko-český + Česko-anglický technický slovník (two volumes) Jiří Elman, Václav Michalíček Sobotáles, 2003 (2nd ed.) Praktický technický slovník anglicko-český / česko-anglický various authors Fraus, 2007 Anglický frazeologický slovník pro techniky Josef Nevrlý Computer Press, 2008 Česko-anglický slovník stavební Jiří Vedral JTP, 2006 science and Velký chemický slovník anglicko-český a česko-anglický (two volumes) Jaromír Mindl, Josef Panchartek VŠCHT, 2012 (3rd ed.) technology Anglicko-český / česko-anglický multiobo-rový slovník z oblasti vědy, techniky a ekonomiky various authors Computer Press, 2011 Anglicko-český slovník. Automobily, silniční vozidla, výroba, prodej, sevis, opravárenství. Ivo Macháčka, Filip Macháčka Systemconsult, 2009 Gumárenský anglicko-český slovník a český výkladový slovník s anglickými ekvivalenty Vratislav Ducháček, Anežka Lengálová ČSPCH, 2004 Anglicko-český a česko-anglický slovník Jarmila Hájková, SFŽP,2010 34 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 životního prostředí a udržitelného rozvoje Ivan Rynda et al. medicine Tematický česko-anglický a anglicko-český soudnělékařský slovník/ Thematic Czech-English and English-Czech Dictionary of Forensic Medicine Michal Beran, Petra Dohnalová, Klára Neureutterová Karolinum, 2018 Cesko-anglická rostlinolékařská terminologie Václav Kůdela et al. Academia, 2008 sport Anglicko-český í německo-český í česko-německo-anglický slovník sportovního tréninku Eva Pokorná, Robert Kandráč Grada, 2011 3.1.2 Electronic dictionaries Subject domain Title Author(s) Publisher and date economics and finance Ĺexicon 7 Ekonomický slovník various authors Lingea, 2019 Anglicko-český ekonomický slovník Jiří Elman Leda, 2005 law Ĺexicon 5 Anglický právnický slovník various authors Lingea, 2008 politics and administration Euro angličtina. Elektronický anglicko-český a česko-anglický slovník pro pracovníky státní správy. Jana Dyčková NOK +Lingea, 2011 Výkladový slovník migrační terminologie / Glossary on Migration various authors IOM, 2014 (e-book / PDF) science and technology Ĺexicon 7 Anglický technický slovník various authors Lingea, 2019 Ĺexicon 7 Anglický zemědělský a přírodovědný slovník Josef R. Beneš Lingea, 2019 Anglicko-český f česko-anglický technický slovník various authors TZ-one, 2013 (e-book / PDF) Slovník analytické chemie anglicko-český a česko-anglický Pavel Matějka et al. VSCHT, 2005 (online) Angličtina na internetu: anglicko-český slovník Jozef Petro Halloenglish.cz, 2015 (e-book / PDF) various fields Nový odborný slovník Millennium 8 an-glicko-český, francouzsko-český, německo-český, rusko-český various authors Commercial Service K+K, 2014 TASK Visit the university library, and use the library catalogue to find out which of these resources are available to you. Terminology resources 3.2 Terminology databases With the more widespread use of the Internet in the past two decades, a lot of lexicographic activity has moved towards web-based technologies. These technologies have enabled the emergence of new lexicographic tools that would be difficult to implement in the traditional book form. In many ways, online terminology databases provide a better answer to the dynamic development in specialist fields; above all: • They are easier to maintain, extend and review. • They are based on distributed collaboration, which means that many people can work on them at the same time and regardless of their location (whereas traditional dictionaries usually only have small, locally-based teams behind them). • They make use of state-of-the-art database technologies, allowing sophisticated ways to look up terms including query-based searching, fulltext searching and in-context searching. • It is easy to design them as multi-lingual (i.e. one term is provided in parallel translation into several languages), whereas in traditional dictionary-making the bilingual approach is still prevalent. • They are accessed through a standard web browser, which is an environment most people of today are familiar with. Compared to an electronic dictionary, the structure of an entry in a terminology database tends to be simpler, and contains less linguistic information. Below is an overview of several useful online terminology databases that are freely available for public use: 3.2.1 TechTerms A monolingual online database of computer and Internet terms. Launched in 2005, the database currently contains about 1500 technical terms with easy-to-understand definitions. Term can be looked up via the web interface as well as from mobile apps for the iOS and Android operating systems. The database is accessible from www.techterms.com. 36 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 3.2.2 Microsoft Language Portal A multilingual online database of standard computer technology terms used across Microsoft products. Due to the significant role of Microsoft in the world of computing, the database can also serve as a general IT terminology bank. The terms are available in almost 100 languages. The database is accessible from www.microsoft.com/Language. 3.2.3 MediLexicon A monolingual online database of terms and abbreviations from the fields of medicine, pharmacy, biotechnology, agrochemicals, healthcare and more. Currently it contains more than 100,000 terms as well as over 230,000 acronyms and initialisms. The database is accessible from www.medilexicon.com. 3.2.4 IATE (Interactive Terminology for Europe) European Union's multilingual terminology database maintained by the Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union / Centre de traduction des organes de l'Uni-on europeenne. The project was launched in 1999 with the aim of providing a web-based infrastructure for all EU terminology resources, enhancing the availability and standardization of the information. IATE has incorporated several terminology databases that European institutions and agencies used in the past. Terms in IATE are available in 25 languages. The database is accessible from iate.europa.eu. 3.2.5 ECHA-term European Union's multilingual database of terms from the field of chemistry, and especially chemical substances. The terms are available in 23 languages. The database is accessible from echa-term.echa.europa.eu. 3.2.6 abbreviations.com A multilingual online database of acronyms, abbreviations and initialisms. The database contains hundreds of thousands of entries across 22 languages, organized by a large variety of categories from computing and the Internet to governmental, medicine and business. The database is accessible from www.abbreviations.com. 37 Terminology resources SUMMARY This chapter provided an overview of various terminology resources that a translator may find useful in his/her daily work. We recommended a number of specialized dictionaries (both print and electronic) that cover terminology in various subject domains. We also mentioned a number of publicly available online terminology databases that can serve as resources complementary to dictionaries. 38 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 4 TERMINOLOGY MANAGEMENT QUICK OVERVIEW The closing chapter deals with the theory and practice of terminology management, focusing specifically on Computer-Aided Translation tools and technologies. We will see how terminology is handled by translation software and how collections of terms can be exchanged between various programs. We will also present a number of tools for efficient terminology management, and introduce term extraction as a way to streamline the creation of term collections. AIMS In this chapter you will learn: • how computer technologies and software tools can help with the organisation and management of terminology; • about termbases and ways to exchange termbase data; • about useful terminology management tools and solutions; • about term extraction and term extractors. KEYWORDS terminology management, Computer-Aided Translation (CAT), termbase, glossary, TBX format, term extraction REQUIRED TIME 180 minutes 39 Terminology management 4.1 What is terminology management? As terminology collections grow bigger, and especially when more people work on them, the need for some kind of organisation or system arises as a prerequisite for further development. If left unmanaged, terminology can easily become inconsistent or confusing. This may have very serious consequences in certain high-risk fields such as medicine, military or law. Terminology management is a set of activities that ensure systematic collection, development, storage, reviewing, updating and distribution of terminology data. Nowadays, terminology is best managed with the help of dedicated software. 4.2 Terms and translation software We mentioned at the beginning of the previous chapter that terminological accuracy is an important aspect of the quality of translation. We also suggested that the translator is not required to know a particular term, but that he/she needs to be able to find the correct term and verify its usability in a particular context. How can computer technology help tackle this task? The field of Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) has brought various types of technology and software that make the translation process faster and easier. Because terminology is at the core of translation work, tools have naturally been devised for terminology management and referencing. In fact, one of the central concepts of CAT software is a module that caters for terminology needs. Regardless of the actual implementation, such a module will: • help you manage electronic term collections (referred to as termbases or glossaries); • monitor the currently translated text and compare it against a selected termbase in real time; • automatically suggest and/or insert the respective translation if the source text contains a term that is stored in the termbase; • support using several termbases simultaneously for reference; • allow the online sharing of termbases among a team of translators; • allow adding new terms on an as-you-go basis; • provide features for basic terminology organisation and management (adding, modifying and deleting terms); • cooperate with dedicated terminology management software if more sophisticated features are needed. 40 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 4.2.1 Termbase A termbase is a bilingual or multilingual electronic database of terms used by CAT software. It contains specific pairings of source and target terms, and optionally also associated metadata (such as comments, context notes or usage examples). Freelance translators tend to use termbases as their personal databases of terminology. These usually take the form of bilingual glossaries which the translator builds up by manually entering source and target term pairings as he/she proceeds from one translation job to another. This process often takes many years, so termbases become a valued resource that is part of the translator's know-how. Therefore, termbases are rarely shared with other freelancers (who represent competition in the market), unless they cooperate as part of a small team. Personal termbases are rarely reviewed by a trained terminologist, so the translator himself/herself is fully responsible for what comes in. Terms are not added according to a rigorous system imposed from above, which can potentially lead to problems such as term duplication or competing translations. Also, personal termbases are seldom annotated with metadata (apart from occasional notes on term usage) because the time spent on comprehensive annotation rarely pays off, considering the nature of freelance translation work. As today's computer technology is very fast even on consumer level, freelancers now often prefer to collect all terms in a single, "catch-all" termbase, rather than keep separate termbases for individual fields or clients. (This used to be common practice in previous decades when searching through large data collections represented a bottleneck.) On the other hand, termbases used by big corporations and institutions are managed quite differently. First of all, they tend to have large teams behind them, which means that the term collections grow faster and bigger. To keep them focused, organised and consistent, they undergo regular review and maintenance. Typically, terms need to be approved by a person in charge before (or soon after) they enter the database, which minimizes the risk of error and inconsistency. This is really important: as corporate termbases are meant to be shared by the company's many departments and branch offices, errors can have much greater consequences compared to freelancer use. Large corporations and institutions often operate on an international scale, so it makes every sense to design their termbases as multilingual. This means that the company or institution can store its entire stock of terminology across all supported languages in one place. Corporations and institutions also tend to maintain several dedicated termbases organised by field, industry or product range because keeping one large termbase for everything would be too impractical, considering the amount of data involved. 41 Terminology management 4.2.2 THE TBX file format Over the years, various CAT solution providers have introduced their own file formats to store termbase data. In order to simplify exchange of terms between CAT programs and ensure a certain level of compatibility, the TBX file format (short for TermBase exchange) was published in 2008 as an international standard. TBX is an open format based on the widely-used XML markup language. It was devised as a standard for representing and exchanging information about terms, words and other lexical data. The main purpose of TBX is to ensure that your data can be used in different software applications. All modern CAT programs, free or commercial, support TBX along with their own formats. TBX is a plain-text, human-readable format that can be viewed in any text editor. The listing below shows one termbase entry taken from a TBX file. We will now have a look at the structure of the entry: An absolute (machine) address specifying a physical location in memory. absolute address Noun adresse absolue Noun Confusing as it may look at the first sight, it is actually very easy to read. The ter-mEntry element introduces a new termbase entry. The id attribute that goes with this element carries a numeric identifier under which the entry is stored in the termbase. The languages in which the term is provided (in our particular example, English and French) are set in the langSet elements. 42 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 The term itself is stored in the term element; we can see that our entry stores the English term "absolute address" together with its French equivalent, "adresse absolue". Any descriptions that go with the term must be enclosed within a descripGrp (description group) element. Note that our term has been accompanied with its English definition, "An absolute (machine) address specifying a physical location in memory", while the French definition is not provided. Because they are stored as plain text, TBX files can be edited manually in a text editor such as notepad. However, this is rarely done because large termbase listings can be quite intimidating to work with. Instead, dedicated software tools are preferred for term-base management. 4.3 Terminology management tools In today's globalised world, properly managed terminology can represent an invaluable asset and a competitive advantage for companies that operate on an international level. Therefore, most terminology management solutions are provided as commercial products. From the viewpoint of technology, current terminology management tools come in one of the following three forms: • standalone software applications: they are installed and run from your computer's hard-drive like any other programs; • integrated tools: they are installed as components of a comprehensive translation solution (a "CAT suite"); • web-based services: they are provided as online applications that run inside a web browser. Certain tools are offered in more than one form simultaneously, in order to match user preference and to ensure the widest possible installed base. Typically, integrated terminology management tools are also sold as standalone programs so that they can be used by people who only need a terminology management solution and do not want to pay for a full-fledged CAT suite. 4.3.1 SDLMultiTerm Launched in 1990 and now published by the company SDL, MultiTerm represents an industry standard in terminology management. The program can be used by translators and terminologists as a standalone application, or it can be integrated with the company's flagship SDL Trados Studio translation suite. Both MultiTerm and Trados Studio run on Microsoft Windows, which is the only operating system officially supported by SDL. 43 Terminology management Quill5 Home View SDL MultiTerm - Brazilian Real Estate Add-lns Help n x Portuguese (Brazil) t Reverse English (United Stat » Languages a Search Filters Editing Tasks Input Display Model' ftft © ® Navigation Terms Browse abaixar a mádia abaixo do par abaixo dovalor nominal abandonar abandono abarrotar a bati m ento a bati m ento abertura abertura de capital abertura de crádito abertura de mercados ABm abonamento a bon o *č Browse \i= Hitlist Efl Termbases Ejj Terms |g Termbase Management aba:inen:o Entry Id: 16 ID: 15 Domain: Real Estate Add field " PORTUGUESE (BRAZIL) Add Term Add field » a bati mento Add field -■ ENGLISH (UNITED STATES) Add Term Add field » allowance Add field -■ Fig. 2 - SDL MULTITERM. The image above displays the main program window of SDL MultiTerm in which a bilingual termbase is being edited. The termbase contains terms in Portuguese and English that relate to real estate (as the "Domain" field shows). More information on SDL MultiTerm can be found on the product website: https://www.sdltrados.com/products/multiterm-desktop. 4.3.2 TermStar TermStar (published by the company STAR AG) is another well-established terminology management solution that comes both as a standalone application and as an integral part of a complete CAT suite, Transit. With the help of another product sold by the company, WebTerm, it is possible to access, manage and share TermStar databases online. More information on TermStar can be found on the product website: https://www.star-group.net/en/products/terminology-management.html. 44 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 4.3.3 Online solutions With the wider availability of broadband Internet connection and online database services, an increasing number of web-based terminology management solutions have cropped up in the past decade. They follow the current trend of cloud computing, where classic computer programs are being replaced by applications running inside a web browser, and data is stored in secured data centres rather than saved locally. This brings the undisputable advantages of distributed access (termbanks can be used and managed from any place that has Internet connection) and automatic data back-up (all termbase data is regularly backed up by the provider of the service, and can easily be retrieved in case of hardware failure). Below is a brief list of web-based terminology management solutions. Most of these are commercial; in fact, their price and licensing scheme often make them suitable for global corporate users rather than individual freelance translators. However, some of these solutions provide a scaled-down free version for personal use: Term Web: https://interverbumtech.com/products-services/termweb evoTerm: http ://www .evoterm.net TermBases.eu: https://www.termbases.eu TermWikiPro: https ://pro .termwiki .com qTerm: https://www.memoq.com/en/qterm-professional-terminology-management 4.4 Term extraction The most useful termbases are those that contain the highest number of entries, especially when they are properly managed. The more verified terms are in a termbase, the higher the chance that the termbase will be able to provide a solution during the process of translation. However, building a sufficiently large termbase can take a long time because entering terms manually is time-consuming. One way to create term collections in a more streamlined fashion is term extraction: a data-mining method through which termbases can be populated with the help of computer technology. 45 Terminology management The idea behind term extraction is based on the fact that in all specialist fields and professions there are vast amounts of text available electronically; these are literally loaded with terms. If a computer program - a term extractor - was taught to analyse text, identify terms and put them on a list, the process of building terminology banks could be automated. This is a challenging task, to say the least. In fact, software tools for recognizing terms (which can be quite complex and often carry grammatical and morphological inflections) are still not reliable enough to allow full automation. There are three main term extraction approaches that term extractors apply in order to tackle the task: • Linguistic: the term extractor attempts to identify word combinations that match certain morphological or syntactic patterns ("adjective + noun", "noun + noun", etc.). This will of course detect many combinations that are actually not terms, so the candidates are filtered using various pattern-matching techniques. The linguistic approach is heavily language-dependent because term-formation patterns differ from language to language. Therefore, term extraction tools using a linguistic approach are generally designed to work in a single language (or closely related languages), and cannot easily be extended to work with other languages. • Statistical: the term extractor looks for repeated sequences of lexical items; this is because terms are key words that often reoccur in the text. The frequency threshold (which refers to the number of times that a word or a sequence of words must be repeated to be considered a candidate term) can typically be specified by the user. The major strength of the statistical approach is that it is language-independent. • Hybrid: this represents a combination of the two methods above, and is the most common approach used in term extraction today. The term extractor is primarily statistical but rules and filters are incorporated to allow picking candidate terms that have certain linguistic features. Term extraction can be approached with two different goals in mind. In monolingual extraction the program analyses a text in a particular language, identifies potential terms, and produces a word list that can serve as a basis for a termbase (translations of the terms in the list will have to be provided). In bilingual term extraction the program analyses a source text together with its translation, identifies candidate terms in the source text, and tries to match them with their equivalents found in the translation. The result is a ready termbase containing terms in two languages. However, as term extractors are still not sophisticated enough to perform either of the tasks with 100% reliability and consistency, the results of both monolingual and bilingual term extraction must always be verified by a human terminologist or translator. There- 46 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 fore, we can speak of term extraction as a computer-aided rather than a fully automated process. 4.4.1 Term extraction tools The table below lists a few term extractors that are available either as free or commercial software: Program name Type Comments Termostat Web free Web-based; free but requires registration. Supports monolingual extraction only. SDL MultiTerm Extract commercial Comes as an auxiliary tool to complement SDL multiterm (see 4.3.1 above). Supports both monolingual and bilingual extraction. FiveFilters free Web-based; supports monolingual extraction only. SynchroTerm commercial Supports both monolingual and bilingual extraction. VocabGrabber free Web-based; free but exporting the extracted wordlist requires registration. Supports monolingual extraction only. TASK Locate the FiveFilters term extraction tool at https://fivefilters.org/term-extraction. Click on the "show options" link and change the Output value to TEXT as shown below: Options Max items | Output | Max words per term H ■ Yahoc output O ■ Terms in lowercase Find a text on the Internet that potentially contains terms. Copy and paste it into the text field on the term extractor page, and click on the "Get Terms" button. The extractor will produce and display a plain-text list of candidate terms. 47 Terminology management DEFINITIONS Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) - An umbrella term for various tools, technologies and solutions that assist in the process of translation. Terminology management - A set of activities that ensure systematic collection, development, storage, reviewing, updating and distribution of terminology data. Termbase (also glossary) - A bilingual or multilingual electronic database of terms used by translation software. Term extraction - The process of analysing text in order to identify words and phrases that are potential terms. Term extractor - A software tool for term extraction. TBX - An international standard file format for exchanging termbase data. COMPREHENSION CHECK 1. What benefits does terminology management bring to translation practice? 2. What functions does translation software provide with regard to terminology and the use of termbasesl 3. Explain how term extraction works, and why a translator might want to use a term extractor. SUMMARY In this chapter we discussed the theory and practice of terminology management, with a focus on Computer-Aided Translation (CAT) tools and technologies. We saw how terminology is handled by translation software and how term collections can be exchanged between various CAT programs. We also presented a number of tools for efficient terminology management, and introduced term extraction as a way to streamline the creation of term collections. 48 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 LITERATURA CABRE, T. M. Terminology: Theory, Methods and Application. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999. JANATA, P. Překládáme do angličtiny: Příručka pro překladatele odborných textů. Plzeň: Fraus, 1999. OLOHAN, M. Scientific and Technical Translation. New York: Routledge, 2016. WALKER, A. SDL Trados Studio - A Practical Guide (kap. 8, „ Managing Terminology"). Birmingham: Packt Publishing, 2014. WRIGHT, S. E. - BUDIN, G. (eds.) Handbook of Terminology Management. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1997. YULE, G. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 49 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 ODKAZ NA ONLINE LMS KURZ Tuto studijní oporu najdete také ve formě interaktivního online LMS kurzu pod odkazem: https://elearning.fpf.slu.cz/course/view.php?id=1404 50 Daniel Jedlička - Odborná terminologie 1 SHRNUTÍ STUDIJNÍ OPORY Cílem této studijní opory bylo seznámit účastníky kurzu Odborná terminologie 1 s charakteristickými rysy anglického odborného jazyka, s konkrétním zaměřením na odborné termíny - tj. výrazy používané v rámci různých oborových názvosloví a profesní mluvy. Stručně byly vysvětleny základní pojmy a koncepty a bylo nastíněno jazykovedné pozadí anglické terminologie (obecná charakteristika anglického odborného jazyka, morfologická charakteristika anglické terminologie a různé slovotvorné procesy, jimiž termíny vznikají nebo do angličtiny pronikají). Studenti se dále seznámili s užitečnými slovníky a databázemi různých oborových terminologií (tištěnými i elektronickými) v jejich aktuálních verzích. V neposlední řadě byla pozornost věnována terminologii v překladatelské praxi, zejména problematice správy terminologie s využitím současných technologií pro podporu překladu (Computer-Aided Translation). 51 PŘEHLED DOSTUPNÝCH IKON Čas potřebný ke studiu Klíčová slova Průvodce studiem <£> I Rychlý náhled Tutoriály K zapamatování Řešená úloha Kontrolní otázka | Odpovědi Samostatný úkol Pro zájemce Cíle kapitoly El m Nezapomeňte na odpočinek I Průvodce textem V I Shrnutí Definice Případová studie Věta Korespondenční úkol Otázky Další zdroje Úkol k zamyšlení 52 Název: Odborná terminologie 1 Autor: Mgr. Daniel Jedlička, M.A. Vydavatel: Slezská univerzita v Opavě Filozoficko-přirodovědecká fakulta v Opavě Určeno: studentům SU FPF Opava Počet stran: 53 Tato publikace neprošla jazykovou úpravou.